PsyArXiv
Non-medical use of nitrous oxide – a systematic review of motivational drives
By Thomas Riemer, Anna E. Schütze, Klara Greisiger and 1 others.
Abstract
Introduction
Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a psychoactive substance with euphoric and mildly hallucinogenic effects and a variety of medical applications. Non-medical use of N2O is widespread and in recent years, there has been a significant increase across the world. To investigate potential drivers of this increase, this review summarizes the current state of research on use motives for N2O use.
Methods
A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, PubPsych, PsycInfo, and PsycArticles including quantitative and qualitative reports published up to March 28th, 2026. Qualitative reports were coded according to the five-factor model of substance use motives assigning material to the dimensions of enhancement, coping, expansion, conformity, social and other motives.
Results
A total of 50 articles were included. Three survey studies were identified that reported enhancement as the major motivational drive. In contrast, the qualitative reports contained coping motives as the most prominent drive. Enhancement and expansion motives were also reported, while social and conformity motives were nearly absent from the qualitative literature.