A Comprehensive Review of SARS-Cov-2 Virology, Clinical Management, and Public Health Lessons

Since its emergence in late 2019, the pathogen responsible for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) — severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) — has reshaped global health priorities. This review draws together current knowledge of SARS-CoV-2 across virology, molecular pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnostics, therapeutics, and vaccination. Particular attention is given to the spike (S) protein and its interaction with the ACE2 receptor, the immune dysregulation and multi-organ injury that follow infection, and the antiviral and immunomodulatory agents developed in response. Drawing on peer-reviewed literature from 2019 through 2024 indexed in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, the review also considers how variants of concern (VOCs) have altered vaccine effectiveness and clinical trajectories, and examines disparities in the public health response and healthcare access across regions. Taken together, the evidence points to an ongoing need for genomic surveillance, equitable vaccine distribution, and coordinated global preparedness frameworks capable of addressing future zoonotic threats.