Reptiles in the One Health ecology of antimicrobial resistance, with insights into zoonotic pathogens: reservoirs, transmission pathways, and public health implications

Antimicrobial resistance is a growing global health challenge at the interface of human, animal, and environmental health. Reptiles-including wild populations, pets, farmed species, and internationally traded animals-are increasingly recognized as participants in One Health AMR networks, occupying ecological interfaces that facilitate interactions among wildlife, domestic animals, humans, and the environment. Their diverse microbiota and exposure to both natural and anthropogenically influenced habitats create opportunities for the acquisition and dissemination of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria (AMR bacteria) and antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs), particularly in captive settings where close human contact and husbandry practices may favor bacterial exchange. Recent studies demonstrate that reptiles frequently harbor clinically relevant ARGs encoding extended-spectrum β-lactamases (ESBL), AmpC-β-lactamases, carbapenemases, and colistin resistance. Potential exposure pathways include direct contact, bites, environmental contamination of terraria and husbandry systems, and, in some regions, the handling and consumption of reptile-derived food products. Wild reptiles may additionally serve as valuable sentinels for anthropogenic AMR pollution within terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Despite growing interest, the role of reptiles within the broader ecology of AMR remains incompletely understood. Available studies are geographically uneven, methodologically heterogeneous, and frequently lack high-resolution genomic characterization, limiting robust assessment of transmission pathways, transmission directionality, and the relative contribution of reptiles compared with other wildlife and environmental reservoirs. This review synthesizes current evidence on the occurrence, diversity, and transmission of AMR bacteria in reptiles and discusses their implications for public health, veterinary medicine, wildlife conservation, and One Health. It further highlights major methodological limitations, critical knowledge gaps, and priorities for harmonized, genomics-informed surveillance. Overall, current evidence suggests that reptiles should be viewed as ecologically relevant participants in the One Health ecology of antimicrobial resistance, although their relative contribution to AMR dissemination remains to be quantified.